Principle and practices of Journalism

 Principle and practices of Journalism 

• Suman Acharya

Principles of Journalism

Accuracy: Fact, name, address, consistency, personal background

Balance: Quote (for and against), third party, space, coverage issues

Credibility: A+B= C, Goodwill, public reading, media literacy

Objectivity: The coverage of any issues as it happened without distortion is objectivity. It is science, not rationality, evidence based

Watchdog: Beware and institutional watchdog 

Journalists

Those professionals who are involved in collection, edition and dissemination of information; especially news and current affairs program are called journalists. Therefore, all kinds of reporter; correspondent, beat reporter, liner, stringer, chief reporter, coordinator, news editor, editor etc are journalists. However, Nepal government recognized only professionals involved in newspaper before 2063 BS. After the second people movement, Nepal government also gave recognition of journalist of TV and Radio news worker. Online media has also expanded the scope of journalists. Journalist have special obligation to follow principles like accuracy, balance, credibility etc. FNJ has also defined newspaper seller (hawker) as journalist which is not prevalent in international society. To be journalist, they prefer the involvement of people in media organization directly or indirectly. There are also the provisions of freelance journalist across the world. In Nepal, Department of Information gives the certificate of freelance journalist after the fulfillment of requirement.

·         Journalistic Process

Journalism is the process of publication or dissemination of news and views on various aspects of human activities in newspaper, periodicals and broadcasting media. The main function of the journalism is to convey national policy to the public and to keep the government informed about public needs. Journalist attempts to establish interrelationship between and among different social force like government, public, pressure group for the purpose of establishing peace, order, social harmony, and social cohesion including justice. Therefore, social welfare and social responsibility are the key benchmark of journalism. The journalistic process starts from collection of information and ends in dissemination of edited information with feedback as follows. 

Collection of information: Each media employs reporter who used to collect news from various sources of information. News reporting consists news gathering and news writing. As it mentioned previous chapter, news reporting should be accurate, balance, impartial, credible and objective. News reporting is prepared not for the confusion of receiver but for the solution of their day-to-day problem. Accurate facts, figure, balance opinion and quotes are the key feature of news reporting. The ingredients of a good news story can add the flavor of news reporting. Timeliness, proximity, human interest topic, and many more are the ingredients of news writing. News reporting helps for the management of uncertainty including benefit of doubt while covering events and issues. People get guideline to ascertain what to do and what not to do. News collector like reporter, correspondent, liner, stringer and other has significant role in a newspaper/broadcast medium. Generally news reporting is presented in inverted pyramid format. Basically, we have two ways to collect news as follows.

·         Beat news reporting: A beat reporter is assigned  to cover a particular beat like sports, finance, crime and many more fully  on which particular reporter is used to collect, organize and write news from each beat. With assignment or not, collection and writing of information concerned to particular beat is main responsibility of appointed reporters.

·         Assignment reporting: Sometime editor is used to assign particular event to particular reporter within the criteria of beat or not. In such a reporting, covering the news asked for by editor is main
responsibility of concerned reporter.  Like this, collected and written on various issues from various sources by reporter is passed into the desk of sub-editor by chief reporter where sub-editor edits and makes good news story by removing unnecessary writing without distorting the essence of news story but it shouldn't be fabricated. Selection of news by sub-editor depends on news value or worthiness.  Edited final copy is used to evaluate by chief editor and gives permission for news dissemination.

Editing: The process of revising, correcting, improving news story by removing unnecessary matter using various proofreading sign without distorting the central idea of document is editing. The editing process is integral to publishing. Editing is not a privilege but a duty, both to the reader and author. Editors are authentic person to edit news in various media. There are various kinds of editor like chief editor, sub or copy or news editor, feature editor, photo editor, visual editor etc. It is saying that 'god knows editors know more' which means editor should have more information concerned to social and scientific discipline. Otherwise he/she can't edit anything.

Publication and dissemination of information: After the final safekeeping of news editor, edited information is disseminated via particular media. Until and unless the publication or broadcasting of information, no life cycle of news and current affairs program can be finalized. However, we can not forget the role of distributor although they are not journalist.

·         Concept of news

News is the reporting of current information on television and radio, and in newspapers and magazines. The four letter of news represents the four directions which are North, East, West and south. So all daily events obtained and reported from various direction is called news. So news is also taken as plural from of new which is emphasized on unexpected new current event or incident and other profile. However all event happened daily is not news. To be news, only important and interesting events are news which is also called news value on which audience is attracted to receive it. The concept of news is very old though the word news relatively recent in origin which is appeared as 'newis' in 1423 but recent term news is used in English after 1550's. 

Definition of news

1. "News is what interests a good newspaperman"- Geraid Johnson

2. " When a dog bites a man that is not news but when a man bites a dog that is news."- Charles Anderson Dana.

3. " News is a new piece of information about significant event that is of interest to a community"- Asia Pacific Institute of broadcasting development.

4. "News is anything that will make people talk"- Charles A. Dana. Editor, New York Sun, 1869-97

5. "News is surprise, an unexpected happening"- Lord Northcliffe

6. " News is news when it is new"- MV Kamath.

7. "Most news stories are about events that have an impact on many people"- Melvin Mencher.

So, News is any event, idea, opinion that is timely, that interests or affects a large number of people in a community and that is capable of being understood by them.

·         Sources of news

There are various news sources; for example expert persons in any field or eyewitness, police, victims etc. can be the source of news. All organization, institution from where journalist gets information especially news in the course of action of reporting is called sources of news. So a person, place, institution, organization, who and which provides information, to information collector like reporter, correspondent, liner, stringer etc, is called sources of news. There are various kinds of news sources, which depicted by various communication experts on the basis of time, place and environment. However we can classify news sources as follows.

1. Predictable, unpredictable, and anticipated sources of News

a.   Pre-expected news source: These are the predictable news sources. Reporter is already informed or known about the place or events. The places of functions like celebration of national days; festival, cultural programs, press conferences, press releases, demonstration and exhibition are the pre-expected news sources. Reporters are already known to these sources of news and they are sure of getting news or information.   For an example, if the next day is democracy day, a reporter has to fix what to do and whom to consult and where to go. It helps to make him update.

b.   Expected news sources: expected news sources are anticipated news sources. A reporter has to collect information himself by witnessing an event or by follow up. Reporters know these sources of news but they are not sure of getting information. These sources of news include place of accident or incidence of offices or public places and may be the crime he is investigating. Informed sources, expert sources and documents are under this news sources. For an example, if a reporter is reporting on the motor accidents within one-month h in the road of Katmandu valley, he needs data of accidents. He needs to go traffic office and needs to meet officer concerned. If he/she is not available, he has to wait for next day. So here the person or officer is expected news sources.

c.   Unexpected news source: These are the news sources, which are not determined. Natural disasters like landslide, flood, soil erosion, earthquake, accidents, rape, murder, kidnapping occur unexpectedly. Unexpected news sources are unpredictable news sources. A reporter has to report on this news immediately. These sources of news are outguessed and unknown. For examples, if persons inform a reporter about bribery and corruption of a politician, the person is unexpected news sources.

2. Monitoring Radio and TV as sources of news. :

 Broadcasting media are faster than other media, which disseminate news from hour to hour. So, newspaper and other news media can take the hints of various sources of news and issues by watching and listening TV and radio respectively. Then they too can follow the news appeared in broadcasting medium.

3. Press release or handout:   Various sources may provide the press release in media house or other handout containing detail information of something which could be news if the media house find it worthy to public. So press release is the statement of concerned institution, which is prepared on the behalf of themselves and always advantageous toward concerned organization. It is sent into the address of media house but there is no guarantee either it will be published or not. So press releases are also the sources of news.

4. Press conference or briefing: Pressmen are invited by concerned organization and delivered information to journalists where journalist may raise cross-questions to clarify the topics. Generally the press conference is formal briefing of information by concerned authority. In normal case, spokesperson of concerned department and other is used to brief about information with journalist which is informal where no journalist are invited but journalists themselves make regular contact with them. So press conference is formal briefing of something where journalists are invited but general briefing is informal where no journalist invited.

5. Interview: An interview with publicly important person is also the important sources of news, which adds curiosity over audiences. Journalist can get various information through interview.

6. Legislatures: Legislature is used to make law and regulation, which is very important news undoubtly. Especially the parliamentary session is very important which makes discussion and decision about national affairs. So it is the food of information for public.

7. Courts: Proceeding of the case and its judgment is also the important sources of news. The comparison of judgment made by different court like Supreme Court, Appellate court, and District court may provide and identify a different news issue which is important for public.

8. Conferences, business and symposia: business activities, meetings, public debate and other public gathering may also make news which can be the very good news sources and can attract mass of the people.

9. Public speeches: Speeches delivered in the time of election, parliamentary session, cultural program, seminar and other are also the sources of news, which provides new angle of incident or subject to look after.

10. Reports: Various reports about various topics made by research institution or other records of government body or other social organization also can make news, which is very important.

11. National and foreign News Agencies:     

 News agencies are known as the main sources of news for mass media. News agencies collect and sell news to the media. Especially Nepalese news agency is used to collect and disseminate news only for print media but foreign news agencies are used to collect and disseminate both for print and broadcasting media.

12. Others:

 Police, hospital, developmental work, lottery etc are also the sources of news.   In fact, there are many more other sources of news like government's body, factory, social organization, accident, criminal network and other. So it is very hard to demarcate the sources of news. All sectors, which give the information, are news sources. So every body and everything existed in this society having public importance is the sources of news.

·         Writing reports and simple news stories

`The key feature of news is related to target group on which reports or news is prepared for their collective desire which focuses on current affairs program. As it mentioned in reporting, news stories should be simple and understandable language. Before writing the news, we should understand target group clearly because news is written for public not for the understanding of reporter himself.

1.        Make sure that plan your ideas before you begin to write and select the most important pieces of information. Then organize your ideas and argument.

2.          Be sure to provide supporting evidence for any of your claims.

3.          Never forget to check your news story for careless mistake at the end. Try to check for spelling mistakes, verb and subject agreement, singular or plural nouns or tense mistakes.

4.        Make sure that all of your ideas are relevant to the context.

5.        Try to avoid repeating the same words, phrases and ideas too often. Try to make sure that you do not repeat the same idea too often and make sure you to explore different ideas to provide a well balanced writing.

6.        Make sure to write as clearly as possible.

7.        Make sure that you produce organized and linked paragraph to paragraph but don't make long paragraph.  

8.        Don't leave out any required information.

9.        Always use simple language and short sentences.

10.     Try to use active voice and straightforward sentences.

11.     Always follow concise and tight writing.

12.     Simplify the technical jargon and use Colloquial language,

13.     As a whole, present your writing accurately, concisely and interestingly.

14.     Use only Appropriate terminology.

15.     Never deceive your audience by presenting false figure and story. Always be honest and fair while writing the reports or news.

16.     Follow the formula of inverted pyramid and give high place value for important issues.

17.     Never confuse the audience by not giving answer of 5wh. So always clear the query as fully as you can.

·         Format of news presentation

While writing the news, we should follow the rule of news presentation on which headline is written at first and byline, dateline, lead line, body detail and ending point consecutively and gradually.

Headline: It has very crucial role to attract reader which is placed at first of news story. So, headline is the title of news story which is presented by line, any other display or words which represents the whole story. Headline shouldn't be long and dull.

Byline: It is the name of reporter or news writer which is placed after the headline of news.

Dateline: It is the date of news writing which is used to place after byline which clearly shows when and where is news story prepared.

Lead line: The first paragraph or sentence of news is lead or intro. It should represent the whole news story in very short paragraph which shouldn't be more than forty words. If the reader finds attractive while reading lead, they will study whole story, otherwise they don't study further news story.

Body detail: It is the details of whole story which is described whole event or circumstances as per their importance where important issues are presented in the beginning and less important issues placed gradually to support main important facts. While writing, news sources and quotes are necessary to be mentioned to make news story credible. It should follow the inverted pyramid and the answer of 5w+h should be represented.

Ending point : After finishing the story, reader should know the information that news story is finished. So, any sign or symbol representing the end of news story should be placed at last of news story.

·         News and its basic ingredients News value

 Every event occurred in society is not news. To be news, it should be publicly important, unexpected and interesting to mass of the people. The capacity to distinguish news from non-news is defined as news sense which is mainly measured by commonsense of news collector. This quality of news is also called news value or worthiness. The ingredients of news value can be defined as follows. Ingredient of news value

Timeliness: Old issues aren't news which can't attract people. So media should disseminate issues as fast as it happened. The event, incident occurred today can make news only for today.

Proximity: Man is inherently concerned to his own society and neighborhood. Every event occurred in their own life and surrounding makes them curious and willing to be known. The death of 300 people in
western country has not news value than the death of 3 people in Nepal in our context. The event and incident occurred in foreign country doesn't have any direct impact over day to day lifestyle of people. So, every event occurred in our own society attracts local people.

 Unusual event: All prominent issues which are unique, new and abnormal make news if important people involved in some unethical event that also makes news. If ordinary person are involved in extraordinary situation, this has too news value. All unexpected rare event makes news which is interesting to mass of the people. So all day to day event isn't news. Bizarre and infrequent event can attract mass of the people to be known.

Human Interest issues: Adventure, disaster, tragedy, triumph, crime and many more human interest issues make news which desired by mass of the people.

Impact: Consequences of some event incident or experiment, which is bad or good, make news. The consequences of nuclear war, civil war, disaster and many more attracts people which make news. On the other hand, innovation of new technology, new facts of space can also make news.

Conflict: Conflict like violation, war, both armed and peaceful, make news which has deep negative impact in society. People are naturally influenced by such a conflict.

Effect on the community: Current affairs program which have direct and indirect impact over own society makes news. People themselves want to know their own society and searches for media coverage which facilitate to get this information fast. Mainly negative impact of event taken place in own society has more news value.

Novelty: if a dog bites a man, it is not news but if a man bites a dog, it is news which represents the newness of news value.

Change: If nothing happens there will be no change. But the world isn't static. Every moment things are different from the moment before. The bigger the change and more the people affected by this change the more important it is from the news point of view.

Progress: Progress is also news value as it is the positive result of efforts made by society. It improves quality of life. New device, new innovation, invention, new remedies, all of them is newsworthy.

 In addition to these topics, many more issues like disaster, change, progress, crime etc. have also news value.

·         Headlines concept

As it mentioned in previous chapter, headline is the summary of news story which motivate the people for further reading of news story. So heading of news story shouldn’t be dubious, unclear, and difficult to understand of people. People make decision either further news story is necessary to study or not by looking only the heading of news. So, headline should be attracting to mass of the people. So it is saying that a headline shouldn’t tell only the story but it should also sell the story. Sub-editor is used to make headline attractive. After watching the headline of news story, receiver should understand the gist of news story fast and easily. According to the Alfred A. Crombel, heading should be attention gaining of audience, showing status and classification of news, selling newspaper, telling facts and showing good design of newspaper.

Kinds of headline

1. Flushed headline:  heading which is usually be 3 or 4 line where each one is smaller than previous one in one side but equal to another side is flushed headline. For example,

…………………………………………

……………......................................

…………………………….

             (Flushed left)

                                                                                         ………………………...     

                                                                                    ……………………………

                                                                                 ……………………………...

                                                                                             (Flushed right)

2. Kicker and strap line: A smaller-point headline which is kept before main bold headline is called kicker in American practice and strap line in British practice. In interpretative, in-depth and investigative reporting, such a heading is used.  For example,

                                                        US may cut off aid to Nepal

                  Armed Maoists in government a no-no: Moriarty

3. Cross line: Heading of the one line equal to news column is cross headline. For example,

Truman passes away

……………………..

……………………..

……………………..

……………………..

……………………..

4. Banner heading: Heading kept from one side of newspaper to other side of newspaper is called banner headline which is usually put in the main news of front page but sometime it is put inner page too. Such heading is used only for very important news issues but general story doesn’t deserve such a story.   For example,

Government committed to publishing king’s property soon, says minister, civil society doubtful,

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Inverted pyramidal heading: Heading which consists beginning line is longer and gradually smaller in both sides as equidistant is inverted pyramidal heading. For example,

…………………………………

……………………..

…………

6. Stepped heading: Heading like a step of a stairs is stepped heading. For example,

                                          ……………………………..

                                                  ……………………………….

                                                         …………………………………… or

                                             …………………................................

                                     …………………………………..

                               …………………………………

7. Hanging Indention: Heading presented first line in left side but indenting or giving little space in left side for other line is called hanging indention. For example,

Extra help

For victim of People’s

Movement as compensation

8. Square indention: Heading presented in square form leaving space in both side of column equally is called square indention. For example,

                                                                       Royal govt’s tax policy Cost

                                                                        Rs 2.7 billion to state coffer

     ……………...................................

      …………………………………...

      …………………………………...

      …………………………………...

9. Ribbons heading: Heading which is kept in one line for three or four columns is ribbon headline. For example, 19 still missing after Sunsary boat mishap.
10. Interrogative: Headline started with question of somebody is interrogative headline. Sub-editor can put question mark even in sentence to attract people. For example, Can Koirala solve the political crisis?
11. Quoted statement: If the saying of publicly important person is very important, subeditor begins news with such quotation headline which is put in inverted comma that is also called tagline. For example, “political crisis soon to be solved” – says Koirala.
12. Personality headlines: Heading providing the feature of person is personality headline. For example, Buddha, Asian star for peace commemorated
13. Centered: Heading which is kept in the middle of news column is called centered heading.
14. Long-short-long: Headline starting long in the beginning of first line and short in second line and again long as first one is long-short-long heading. For example;

............................................................................................

.................................................................

............................................................................................

·         Tips on head-line writing

Every Headline is written on a separate folio.  The headline should be written clearly- in capitals if necessary.  The letters which need capitalization should be double ticked. Headlines can be multi-deck or multi line in a single deck. They may be set in capitals, lower case, italics. Head lines may be spread over one or multi column. Arrangement of words could be centered or indented lines.  Writing headline involves half the skill of a good news deskman. Headline writing is art and craft at the same time.

 In the newspaper the following styles are using as news head lines:

a.       It should be short.

b.      Use attractive language

c.       Use strong verb

d.      Every word should be weighed A headline must fit in the space available to it.

e.       Concentrated on single element from news story

f.       Language should be correct and simple.

g.      Typography should easy to read.

h.      Exclamation and question marks should be rarely used.

The art of writing headlines

1. Before writing headline, sub-editor should study whole news story carefully and should get important point of news story.

2.      Select the word which can represent whole story.

3.      Don't use preposition and adverb if possible

4.      Don't use pronoun if possible

5.      Don’t use semicolon, colon, or and other conjunction if possible

1.      Length of headline should fit as per the space of newspaper.

2.      It is better not to use of question marks, semicolon, and inverted coma.

3.      Don't use abbreviate and infamous name of something.

4.      Use always bold headline and sometime italic too.

5.      Use attractive type faces.

6.      Use present tense in your heading

7.      Use straightforward sentence and action verb

8.      Use brief and clipped language

9.      Do not repeat words

10.     Make your headline meaningful on the basis of lead line.

11.     Never deceive audience by headline.

12.     Avoid exaggerated, misleading, sensational headline.

·         The news structure

Communication expert has prepared news structure for news writing to make editing easy and to attract audience       toward news story. We can define news structure of hard news in inverted pyramid format which is represented by 5wh that should include ABC too. Sometime, specially serious and soft news can be written in sensational pyramid which does not follow any format but content are presented gradually according to the event taken place.

Inverted pyramid

 Main central point, amplification or details, tie up or other necessary information and additional information are used to put gradually in inverted pyramid. Headline, intro, main evident, background and examples, less important supportive facts and examples and other information should be kept in news story gradually which represents the inverted pyramid. In fact, inverted pyramid is somewhat standardized format for presenting a news story. In this format the reporter explains clearly what happened to whom with what causes and consequences and gives the most important facts first, those next in importance second, and so on to the minor details Tomson Foundation has tried to make news structure making the rule of 5wh which emphasize on putting very important matter in the beginning of news and less important matter gradually where evident is necessary to prove the news story which can be quote, data and other figure but it is applied only in hard news, not in soft news. So, all aspects of the event or subjects should be included in the story without taking any side. Story should give answer of following too.

1.      What is happened?

2.      Where is it happened?

3.      Who is victim and who is guilty?

4.      When is this taken place?

5.      Why is it happened?

6.      How is this incidence occurred?

While organizing our news structure in above mentioned inverted pyramid, we shouldn't forget the quality of news which is represented by accuracy, balance and credibility. Generally, news is organized by introduction, fact, absorption, background and additional evident. If we can't prove our story by presenting evident, it won't be news story and turns only into opinion. Basically, we follow following structure to write body detail.

This format of the news story shows that introduction of news story which is represented by intro or lead is put at first. Then, to support the lead other facts, data and incidence is presented which is precedent by quote. If possible all facts and figure should be mentioned in our news story as a background which should be followed by facts again.

·         Qualities of news

News is not news at all if it has no quality of news. Every news having the element of news but lacking its quality has no news value and can't guide the society too. If reporter doesn't envisage news quality while writing in news structure, it can bring only incredibility of news media and social chaos. So journalist should always be aware about qualities of news while news writing.

1.      Accuracy: All facts, data, name, quote included in news story should be truthful. The degree to which the meaning intended by a source to arouse certain meaning to audience should be same.

2.      Balance: Accuracy is not only enough to attract large number of audience.  If there is no balance placement of all parties to the action, audience doesn't pay their attention to such a news story. So,
reporter should give equal chance to all participant, both supporting for and against.

3.      Credibility: News story should be believable to audience. Otherwise, effort of media men will be vain. Journalistic objectivity may help to increase the degree of credibility.

4.      Consciousness: Audience wants to be aware with social event and personality but they don't like to study long and loose writing. So, reporter should write news story concisely with summarizing the event without leaving any important issues.

5.      Impartiality: Reporter shouldn't be bias or take side. Opinion of reporter is also prohibited in general case while writing news. If journalist has any query, he can ask with source to give their own answer.

• Editorial

Editorial is the vision of the news media where editorial board is responsible for the editorial writing. Editorial are opinion pieces written by editorial member of the newspaper which usually shorter than other article. Editorial is found at the top-left side of op/ed page of newspaper. It reflects the stance of the paper which is without byline.

Editorials are often not written by regular reporters of the news organization and are instead collectively authored by a group of individual of board member or other but editor gives suggestion to write editorial.

If written by the board, they represents the newspaper’s official position on various issues appeared in editorial. Editorial are always printed on its own page of newspaper and are always labeled as editorial. Editorials are often about current events or public controversies.

Bravin Roy has categorized editorial as follows in his book ‘Beginners Guide to Journalism”.

1.Interpretive editorial: Such editorial may be further information about a news event interpretating important happening which is not possible to be kept in news column.

2.Criticism editorial: An editorial which criticizes any situation, slandered, problem or tradition is criticism editorial. However criticism must be positive and optimistic instead of negativism or pessimistic point of view.

3.Persuasive editorial: Such an editorial persuades public to change or divert their public opinion to establish some culture, behavior or tradition.

4.Praising editorial: An editorial which praises or gives congratulation or commend people for their better performance or victory is praising editorial. For example, victory in sports game, victory in election etc.

5.News editorial

• Reporting for Radio

Unlike the print media and television, radio is different because it is meant for listening. In other words, radio is a medium for the ears but we generally have very little time to tell something. So before editing for radio, we should focus on the combination of words, sounds and music to concentrate the attraction of listener.

So, information included in radio is generally shorter and very little time to tell something. Radio has different programming formats for almost every taste and lifestyle. There are programs for children, youth, teenagers, elderly, religious group. As their interest to make them information meaningful and understandable, editing is essential.  While editing for radio, following tips should be considered.

1. Don’t keep background of words but can be used sound bite.
2. Keep clear lead.
3. Make citation of source in the beginning.
4. Consider always on time available for this information.
5. Use short sentence and simple language.
6. Always use colloquial language.
7. Use easy words for pronunciation.

Radio editing

1.                  Dub editing: This editing is made just transforming the necessary material from one tape to other tape by dubbing subject matter. Only necessary portion of information is transferred making it in good order; chronologically or other form. Final prepared information like interview, speech, sound, music is transferred into studio tape for broadcasting.

2.                  Cut editing: This editing is prepared by cutting and adding only required information as if all unnecessary information can be discarded. Only necessary information is kept and unnecessary information is left by arranging within certain order.

3.                  Digital editing: This kind of editing uses computer hard disk and various kinds of software to keep necessary item and discard unnecessary item. First of all, all items are kept in computer hardware and removed unnecessary item. This editing is very simple to execute in contemporary world.

• Reporting for Television

TV is established itself as one of the most effective mass media if people have access to technology because of its nature of audiovisual medium. TV is most expanded medium across the world in contemporary society where it has established main global mass media. TV has become the windows of the world by which the world contracted to narrow area. There should be the very good synchronization and combination between audio and visual. So, it includes all characteristics of radio writing, only difference is that there should be combination of audio and visual context. While editing for TV, visual element and configuration with other text is measured.

Preparing material to be read on screen is not the same as for print. We must develop different skills in order to attract and retain on screen readers effectively. Television is the most powerful medium because it allows the use of sight, sound and motion in the information. However, this medium has also problems because it is expensive and also very difficult to arrange pictures, words and sound simultaneously. While editing it for television, this is the most challenging thing. 

TV editing

Video editing: The arrangement of visual photo taken by various cameras to make it compatible with audio script is video editing. The combination between audio and visual is key concerned area of visual editing

1.                                                      . Visual editing is done for film, serial, documentary and TV. Only relevant visual scenes are kept for broadcasting by configurating it into audio script. There are two kinds of visual editing.

2.                                                      a. Insert editing: Only required audio-visual information is transferred into another tape and final footage is prepared.

3.                                                      b. Assemble editing: In assemble editing, different kinds of pieces of information are joined and transferred them into another empty tape and only it will be broadcasted.

Television editing is done for following purpose.

§     To make combination between audio and visual material.

§     To keep the visual consecutively.

§     To keep necessary background to produce visual effect.

§     To keep suitable sound bite as per visual element and text.

§     To transfer the visual language into text language to say the intended meaning.

• Rewriting a copy for electronic media (Both for Radio and TV)

a.       Always think on narration of information: Radio and TV, both used narration to tell something as in drama. So, narration between and among people should be straightforward, simple and understandable. Otherwise information will be ineffective.

b.      Write to express, not to impress: Electronic media are for expression of reality, not for the impression of other by fabricating unbelief subject matter.

c.       Think first, and then write: Creativity is most necessary thing to present information. To make it effective and attractive to listen, deep thinking is necessary.

d.      Use familiar words: If unfamiliar words are used in electronic media, people can’t grasp the meaning and every effort will be vain. So, colloquial language is always far essential to be used in information.

e.       Omit verbal deadwood: Unnecessary proverb and phrase shouldn’t be used in electronic media which will have not any impact.

f.       Keep your sentences short: Long sentence shouldn’t be used in electronic media. If so, people can’t remember it and effort will be vain.

g.      Use the active voice: Passive voice can distract the mind of audience which will be difficult to give meaning instantly. So, straight active voice is necessary.

h.      Use specific concrete language: Metaphorical, satirical and other confusing words shouldn’t be used. Only the words having concrete meaning should be used.

i.        Use adjectives sparingly: Editor shouldn’t use adjective in unnecessary place. Using adjective in various places can make meaning quite illusive.

j.        Write as you talk: We use simple word and sentence while we speak verbally. So, script should be used as it expressed by them.

k.      Revise and sharpen: Writing and rewriting is necessary to make our writing concise and understandable. We should make it until it isn’t proper and simple.

·         Feature

Feature is the kinds of article which is in-depth description generally written in human interest topics with enough background. So, it is quite longer and opinion oriented with details on the basis of fact and figures.  Even a news story can be featurized adding the recipe of human interest angle. Various serious or more analyzed articles can be also feature but it should be on the basis of facts and figure. Opinion oriented articles without facts aren’t feature. Sometime feature editorial can be also found in newspaper. So, good feature includes the characteristics of investigative, in-depth, interpretative reporting.

Feature is soft information which may or may not have time-bound.

Types of feature

1.Personality feature: A feature related to personal profile like sports person, president, scientist or other publicly important person is personality feature. Obituary or other are also included in this type of feature.

2.Place feature: A feature, describing the specific place like ocean, temple, village, district or other tourism spot, is included in this type of feature.

3.Event feature: A feature related to specific event like war, conflict, disaster, ceremony or other is event feature. This kind of feature is widely found in various print and broadcasting media.

4.News feature: A feature related to soft news and appeared in news column is news feature. It is different than the hard news. This kind of feature is presented like a news format but it includes other background and in-depth information.

5.Anniversary feature: A feature covered annual transaction or other ceremony is anniversary feature. For example, feature writing on Human Development Index, Situation of annual press freedom or other which is generally based on reporter’s diary etc.

6.Analytical feature: In-depth, investigative feature article are analytical feature.

7.Human interest feature: Extra ordinary person, place, event; all are included in this category of feature.

8.Photo feature: A feature described by various photos or pictures with caption is photo feature. This kind of feature is also widely used in daily newspaper with important happenings.

Feature writing

The style of feature writing across the world isn’t same. It is different from place to place, from person to person and from issues to issues.  Sometime it may be written in inverted pyramid and sometime it is found in sentimental pyramid but it is different than the writing of hot news. Feature writer have special right as if they can start feature as their own interest. However, we shouldn’t forget the interest of target group while writing the feature.

Sometime feature writer focus on essay format. In the beginning, they tell the story as narrator which may mention event, actions and adventures in early paragraph. Then writer prolongs the narration which presents the detail information in the middle of feature writing. After this, feature writer describe the person idea, feelings, interest to arouse and impress audiences. At last, subject matter which has persuasive value is presented at the end of feature writing.  Literary essay may or may not have facts and figure but journalistic feature should include facts and figure. To support the idea and facts, feature writer may use his factual opinion presenting various kinds of evident and burden of proof. 

However, as other journalistic and other writing, feature should be also short, simple and understandable. Small paragraph with precise and concise writing may attract audience. Otherwise, long and illusive language discourages audience to read or receive this feature information. Too long feature isn’t good though it is longer than news and other writing. Feature can be found from 1000 to 1500 words. More words in same feature than 1500 may not ideal. Sometime it depends on subject matter and event. Feature related to Royal Massacre, Second people’s movement etc can include more than these words too. So, feature writing style isn’t same and no universal standard is found to define how to write feature?

So, feature can be written in following format too.

(iii) Introduction or background: While writing feature, in first paragraph, introduction to given subject matter can be presented. Introduction shouldn’t be long and difficult to understand. Humorous or satirical information can be also presented with facts and figures.

(iv) Rising action: After the introduction, it should mention that why this feature is necessary to be written with examples which attract to read feature further. The main lead of feature can be presented in this section.

(v)   Climax: In this section of the feature, it should be mention that why this issues is occurred and important than other issues. The crux point of event or personality which is interesting to public should be kept.

(vi) Falling action: In this section, less important facts and figures are presented to support main facts mentioned before.

(vii)                       Catastrophe: At last, feature should mention the aftermath of event or other. Writer can give suggestion also to discourage negative practices and encourage positive practices. Other miscellaneous issues can be also presented in this section.

Scope of feature

The scope of feature is very board and expanded. All subjects like psychology, anthropology, sociology, medical science, engineering and other can be the subject matter of feature. To be feature, it should be only human interest topic. Human interest topic doesn’t consist only the happiness, bizarre thing but also the sad thing like anger, sympathy, obituary and other. We can see the feature related to health, malnutrition, development, pollution, density of the people, water scarcity, food scarcity, human right, scientific innovation, cosmological search and findings, political subversion, singer, dancer, politician, ocean, territory etc in various media. So, feature keeps close relationship with each nook and corner of society. As a whole every subject matter of the society or universe is the sources of feature. We can’t delimit its scope. All mortal and immortal things are the subject of feature.

• Feedback from beneficiaries and measurement of benefit

According to the Defleur Dennis, Feedback is a form of reverse communication in which a receiver sends messages back to a sender, unwittingly or deliberately. Feedback is subtle but it clarifies how well communication is taking place.  In face to face communication, receiver makes reflection instantly as a feedback both; verbally and nonverbally, to minimize incongruence. If they have doubt, they can clarify instantly by voice or other gestures.

In terms of mass communication, feedback is quite long process. In contemporary world, receiver can give feedback via telephone, post box or email or fax and other. After evaluating the feedback received from various receivers, source or concerned media house can get guideline to improve the qualities of message. Effective feedback leads information to a greater accuracy in communication. In reverse, accuracy in encoded and decoded meaning is less likely.

Source always wants to make intended effect on audience but it isn’t occurred always. Dysfunction and unintended or unplanned effect over them may be reducing the efficiency of communication which can be understood only after the evaluation of feedback.  This is the feedback principle.

Feedback helps to take role taking principle. The sender tries to be a receiver in order to understand how receiver is likely to respond to the message being transmitted via various media. That is role-taking principle. However, feedback is clearly understood in interpersonal communication but mass communication is occurred verbally or written form where there will be no presence of source and receiver directly. In that case, understanding of target group and their desired information helps to make communication effective, some extent.

The beneficiaries of communication are receiver in which message is targeted for. If they understand the information sent by source, they will get more benefit. Otherwise, they don’t get benefit and will be only vain of media use instead. Dysfunction and unintended understanding of message isn’t beneficial to them.

As a whole, active audience can get more benefit than passive audience. Active receiver may get chance to clarify their understanding with the source where as passive receiver doesn’t get chance to be clarified. So, the measurement of benefit is very hard to be determined. Well exposed receiver who have direct contact with media or source may get more advantage and less exposed gets less advantage. In addition, the benefit of media content depends on knowledge, education, attitude, behavior, socio-cultural status etc. So, there is no standard parameter to measure the benefit of beneficiaries. 

The base of measurement of benefit of beneficiaries of media content is ultimately feedback and role taking principle.

• Interviews

Interview is a major technique of acquiring information by journalists. Generally we can define interviewing as asking questions to obtain opinions, ideas or special information on a topic of interest to the public from prominent person or a recognized authority. Thus, interviewing is a process in which an interviewer attempts to get ideas from the person to be interviewed. In other words, it is a technique for collecting information in the process of media communication.

There is hardly any news media which does not carry interviews. Many times the cover story and some other major stories involve more than one interview. Sometimes, several people are interviewed on a particular subject and different viewpoints are complied in one feature.

The importance of interviews has been growing as a news gathering technique over the years. It is now seen more and more in news columns. In the interview, there are interviewer, interviewee and the topic. Interviewer is the person who conducts the interview. Interviewee is the person who answers the question of interviewer. The topic is the main subject matter of interview.

Principle of interview

As a process of authentic information collection, interview has a certain principles to be followed. These principles are appeared in the process of interviewing as follows.

Sincerity: This is one of the principles of interviewing which is equally applicable to both sides of interview; both to interviewer and interviewee. The interviewer should be sincere with his subject in case of their compromising points. They should be careful about what they have promised to the subject and do accordingly. They must be accurate and fair. Interviewee should give information honestly and accurately as it asked by interviewer.

Cooperation: An interview is a mutual concept. While interviewing, both sides – the interviewer and interviewee, should be co-operative to each other. If the interviewer thinks their subject felt some difficulties in answering the questions, interviewer should facilitate him by asking short, simple and useful questions as feedback. In the same way, interviewer shouldn’t puzzle and make interviewee nervous.

Relevance: Things that take place while interviewing can be judged against whether they are relevant or not. Every question of the interviewer should make the subject feel that s/he is getting a chance to express point of great significance. At the same time, the subject should also be aware of what s/he is taking about or telling is appropriate.

Flexibility:  The subject should be mentally or psychologically made free to express his or her views and opinions without any kind of hesitation and hopelessness. This is to say while being engaged at the process of interviewing, interviewee or the subject. If the interviewee takes place in stressful situation that may cause anxiety and tension in the mind of the subject, s/he can’t give answer properly.  So, flexible situation should be created to the interviewee. So, they can speak freely without any hesitation. Interviewer shouldn’t keep overloaded question which may create nervousness or difficulties.

Objectivity:  This is one of the most important principles of interviewing. Before being engaged in the process of interviewing, there are some objectives determined to achieve after the completion of he process. While interviewing, the interviewer as well as interviewee should think such objectives. Both sides shouldn’t leave their track. There must not be any prejudices or bias to the privacy of the subject. Answers of interviewee shouldn’t be distorted while edited it for publication or dissemination.

Information vs. instruction:  The main purpose of interviewer is to get some information from his subject, never to teach interviewee. Therefore, the efforts of an interviewer should be focused on obtaining answers to him /her questions. The interviewer shouldn’t try to over generalize the subject matter and teach the subject about it. Interviewer should record what they get from the subject but not what should be in reality according to his opinion. Interviewer should give free environment to express his or her opinion to interviewee but they can make cross questions.

Preparation for Interview

1.                        Select a specific topic that can be developed into a story and identify the person with whom you are planning an interview in the near future.

2.                        Prior to the interview learn as much as possible about the interviewee: his position, accomplishment, opinion, likes and dislikes personality, etc.

3.                        Learn as much as possible about the topic on which the interview is to be conducted. An interviewee who thinks that the reporter is knowledgeable about the subject of the interview is more likely to speak frankly and freely.

4.                        Read enough information so that you can talk intelligently on the topic. Draw up a list of thought-provoking questions, the kind that will get the interviewee to do most of the talking.

5.                        Ask timely questions of contemporary relevance.

6.                        Ask questions of local interest.

7.                        Avoid embarrassing or vague questions.

8.                        Avoid yes and no questions as much as possible, rather, ask open ended questions, that is, questions that give the interviewee some leeway in responding.

From whom information can be obtained

            1.         from the person's friends and acquaintances.

            2.         From previous publicity about the person concerned..

            3.         References collected from Who's Who, Biographies and Current Affairs.

            4.         From magazine articles and books the person has written or from those been                                   written about him or her.

Tips for the beginner

-           Select and revise the notes taken by you during the interview carefully.

-           Use your originality to determine the best effect for a personality interview.

-           Manner of introduction to the person interviewed

-           Start off with the bras-stack.

-           Give the Lead and Than Listen

-           The telephonic interview

-           Specialized interview

What to do and what not to do in interview

Do's

(i)         As far as you can, thoroughly study your man and the subjects about which you wish him to talk.

(ii)        Show interest in the job and try to get on easy terms with your man quickly.

(viii)         While on the job, go well-dressed but not over-dressed.

(ix)             Get an understanding at the outset that you are at liberty to publish any of his remarks unless he asks for special points to be regarded as confidential or as 'off the record'.

(iv)             Submit a copy of your interview to the person interviewed if time permits and see that when he returns it, he 'Okays' the contents.

(v)               Always remember that there is such a thing as the law of libel and that the indiscreet journalist's personal remarks might cause great deal of trouble.

Don't

(i)         Don't think that you know more about the subject that the man you are interviewing, because you definitely do not.

(ii)        Don't adopt a servile attitude, but at the same time, show that you respect your man for what he has done.

(iii)       Don't outstay your welcome. When you feel that you have got all you require, do not hang about talking of crops or cricket. Remember that he may have another appointment even if you have not.

(iv)       Don't feel that it is necessary to argue with your man if you do not agree with some of the views he expresses, because after all, the interview is not a debate.

(v)        Don't flout a notebook in your man's face as though it was the newspaperman’s Bible.

Process of interview

·         Pre interviewing stage: This is the first step of interview which is also known as      preparation stage. At this stage, one should do the following.

a.                   Make contact with subject

b.                  Fix the time, venue and period

c.                   Make sufficient research about the subject

d.                  Decide what do you want to get

e.                   Prepare questions

f.                   Carry a recorder, microphone, notebook, pen etc.

·         While interviewing stage: This is the second stage of interview in which the interviewer tries to get information from the subject. At this stage, actual interview is taken place. When starting this stage we should act as following.

a.                   Smile politely

b.                  Great him or her appropriately.

c.                   Introduce yourself. Sometime it’s not necessary.

d.                  Exhibit interest in subject.

e.                   Make sure the subject is comfortable.

f.                   Record or prepare notes without disturbing interviewee.

g.                  Don’t waste time, ask questions.

h.                  Listen to him/her very carefully.

i.                    Be to the point, don’t gossip.

j.                    Do not yawn.

k.                  Leave the awkward questions.

l.                    Don’t use yes/no questions.

m.                Never use negative questions.

n.                  Be polite but not servile.

o.                  Use appropriate language.

p.                  Show confidence.

q.                  Sit face to face

r.                    Look at interviewee frequently.

s.                   Ask simple and direct questions.

t.                    Ask if there is anything important, you didn’t ask about.

u.                  While finishing information, thank him/her.

·         Post interviewing stage: In this style, the interviewer works on the information or ideas noted down or recorded during the interviewee. The whole part of interviews is not necessarily published or broadcasted. How much of the interview should be published depends on the purpose for which the interview is take , For instance, for a news story the reporter uses summary or even quotes; but in case of a feature story, whole of the interview can be published or broadcasted.

Types of interview

Interview is significant technique of gathering facts and it is very difficult to say in single word about its classification. So, on the basis of different criteria, interviews can be classified in a number of ways as follows.

• On the basis of formality, we can classify interviews in two ways as follows.

a.             Formal interview: An interview which is well planned and organized in advance is known as formal interview. The questions are already designed and the subject is already informed time, place and the topic of interview. Specially, such a interview is concerned with official matter, political and other but not in personal matter.

b.            Informal interview: Those interviews which aren’t necessarily planned and organized in advance are informal interviews. Such interviews are generally related to personal subject matter. Place can be anywhere like street, film hall, house or other at any time. Nothing is fixed which is comparatively random. 

• According to medium, there are two types of interview.

a.             Oral interview: If questions and answers are taken orally in any subject, that kind of interview is oral interview.

b.            Written interview: If questions and answers are taken and provided in written form, that kinds of interviews are written interview. Diplomatic person generally give such interview.

• Profiles and personality interview: Such interviews are taken for preparing for the feature stories rather than for making hard news stories. The focus is usually given on the person rather than on the event. Here, an interview attempts to finds something exotic or peculiar about the subject which is not known before to public.
• Group interview: An interview which taken among two or more people is group interview which taken to get different opinion about any topics in same time. TV is most reliable medium for group interview. However, print and radio can use the group interview to get information too.
• Telephone interview: This kind of interview is conducted on telephone. Telephone interviews are almost always shorter than face to face interview. Such interview is taken to get information quickly in some issues. Many news quote are made in such interview.
• Vox-pop: This kind of interview can be taken to get the public opinion on current issues. Especially, it is one kinds of feedback of the audience on current issues or topic which is taken for electronic media.
• Press conferences: Journalist are used to ask questions for reply even in press conference to cross check facts and figure which is mentioned by any organization or people etc.
• Spot news interview: Spot news interviews gather information that supplements the news story. The emphasi8s in this interview is on the event rather than on the person. Reporters are usually looking for supplementary material like facts that will be illustrate or highlight the event. Questions are depending on story types and person. Most often, such interview are carried out on the phone too. Mostly summary is used but it doesn’t mean quotes are not used. So, such interview is applicable in hard news story.
• Theme story interview: This kind of interview is used to gather information theme stories to examine idea or current development. Here, the focus is given on particular issues which are recent and contemporary issues. For example, young life in the city, fashion, market behavior etc.
• News interview: This kind of interview is conducted to get the news from different people, which is taken about current issues, politics, accident, government’s decision, policy etc. 

                                                                                                                                  

• Specialized Reporting

a) Crime Reporting

Reports on crimes are always saleable to public taste as they do not take place in normal situations and circumstances. Police at the community level are always the reliable sources who give first hand information about the recent crime occurred in the locality. A reporter can undertake specialized reporting focusing attention when a series of crimes occur and it becomes a social problem affecting the well being of a lager segment of the community. 

Acts related to violence, rape, corruption, robbery, kidnapping, illegal trade, black marketing, drug abuse, violation of human rights, action against state are related to crime. So crime reporting is related with the dissemination of news to minimize harm in sensitive situation. While writing crime reports, a reporter must be careful to avoid defamation. A case of defamation may arise over the publication of a statement by someone containing defamatory reference to another person or even a corporate body.

Crime reporter always check court, police, home, department, jail, hospital, army barrack as well as local authorities who and which has knowledge about crime that can be important sources of information.  Crime reporter should take a lot of interview at the scene of crime and work hard to acquire interesting news report with accurate details and relevant quotes. Such reporter cannot turn blind eye to the wrong doing of the authorities including police. They may distort the case for undue advantage. Only the police statement cannot be accurate. So journalist should make field observation too. While writing the reports, the reporter should check his or her information finally to find out sufficient evident. While writing, legal, ethical and house style shouldn’t be forgotten.

B) Developmental reporting

Development reporting is a relatively new concept that has emerged in post colonial era after world war second when a number of countries became independent. Development reporting calls for an honest collection, intelligent processing, interesting presentation and interpretation of information of development interest. Development reporting concerns: whole range of local economic and social change, human dignity, security, politics, urbanization, agriculture, cottage industry, justice and equity, social empowerment, etc.

Importance of development reporting

1. To create awareness

2. To introduce and reintroduce cultural aspect.

3. To improve the quality of life.

4. To participate people actively in reformation of society.

5. To create the feeling of equality and equity.

6. To improve economical and social status by giving information of opportunity.

7. To give problem of society for its solution by reporting.

Problem of development reporting

1. Weak economic status of media

2. Influence of other issues like politics, crime, corruption etc.

3. Prejudicial concept for development reporting.

4. Pressure from the authorities for their own benefit.

5. Geographical difficulties.

6. Lack of journalist’s security etc.

C) Court Reporting

Litigation and court cases always attract the interest of readers/viewers of mass media. Hence, courts are always the source of collecting news of public interest value. Court is one of the major sources of information to news media. Court is the place to provide justice. If this institution that provides justice is not justifiable, it is the responsibility of journalist to have check and balance after collecting real facts by writing report about that. A court reporter not only records history but also contributes to all parties to be careful in legal proceeding including the analysis of pros and cons of events. They may give pressure to government officials to implement the verdict of the court.

Court reporter has two basic meanings one a person who is assigned to document the whole activities of the court regarding one case; another journalist5 who is assigned to cover a case fort the publication or broadcasting of news. Hence, our concern is for the second meaning. Court reporting is legal beat of journalist which is almost related to crime and its proceeding. Hence, court case always attracts the interest of readers or viewers of mass media on which many public interest issues are generated. 

While reporting the court news, a reporter should bear following tips. After getting details of these findings, court reporter should write news. However, journalist should think on contempt of court. Otherwise it entraps journalist in legal action which is inviolable.

a. If the case has high public concern or not

b. Nature of evidence

c. The testimony of experts

d. Circumstantial evidence

e. The testimony of witnesses

f. Presumptions and judicial notice

D) Investigative reporting

Investigative reporting is the information prepared by a lot of research and investigation. For the preparation of the investigative news, a reporter should spend a lot of money and time. It takes more than a month or year which depends on nature of issues. It is the situation reporting rather than event reporting. If somebody hides any information of any event, this will be the matter of investigative reporting. Only highly experience reporter can make such reporting. If a party to action knows reporter, they may kill such a journalist. So this is the risky reporting. Water gate scandal was the example of investigative reporting which was done by Karl Bernestain and Bob Woodward in 1970’s for Washington Post Daily of America.

Investigative reporting is the kind of depth reporting in sensational case done by authorities or other. Such a reporting needs adequate deadline, genuine understanding, cooperation of management, clear and sincere direction from experienced editor.

Investigative reporting is possible in any field like education, health, politics, development, crime corruption etc. A reporter should create a hypothesis before they go for that makes reporter easy to enter in any subject. Such reporting is possible only in team work of various people. Otherwise it will be too risky. No reporter should tell other about their investigation. It needs lots of evident, facts and figure to support their issues.

So investigative reporter needs

1.                  Expertise on concerned topic

2.                  Courage to endure danger

3.                  Public relation

4.                  Quality to listen other’s opinions

5.                  Taking notes systematically

6.                  Patience

E)    Parliamentary reporting

While reporting the parliamnet, reporter should think on the parliamentary privileges. Generally, journalists are allowed only in open seasion of parliamnet and completely prhibited in closed session. However, parliament is open for journalists as it specified in quota system by Department of Informantion in Nepal.

Parliamentary privilege is a legal immunity enjoyed by members of certain legislatures, in which legislators are granted protection of civil or criminal liability for actions done or statements made related to one's duties as a legislature. A similar mechanism is known as parliamentary immunity. Therefore, journalists have not absoloute freedom to cover the story. They should cover the news story of parliament envisaging the freedom of parliamentarian.

It allows members of the House of Lords and House of Commons to speak freely before those houses without fear of legal action on the grounds of slander. It also means that members of Parliament cannot be arrested on civil matters within the grounds of the Palace of immunity.

Parliamentary privilege is controversial because of its potential for abuse; a member can use privilege to make damaging allegations that would ordinarily be discouraged by defamation laws, without first determining whether those allegations have a strong foundation.